To optimize your Android app for low-latency video streaming, you'll need to execute several key strategies. Start by using adaptive bitrate streaming (ABR) to automatically adjust video quality based on network conditions. Integrate with content delivery networks (CDNs) to reduce latency and establish efficient caching mechanisms. Monitor critical performance metrics like startup time, rebuffer ratio, and quality switches. Choose appropriate streaming protocols (HLS, DASH, or RTMP) and utilize advanced compression techniques like H.265/HEVC codec. Focus on flexible buffering strategies and real-time quality adjustments to maintain smooth playback. These fundamentals establish a foundation for exploring more advanced optimization techniques.
Key Takeaways Implement Adaptive Bitrate Streaming (ABR) to automatically adjust video quality based on network conditions and device capabilities. Utilize efficient CDN integration and edge caching to minimize network latency and ensure faster content delivery. Configure dynamic buffer sizes that adapt to network fluctuations while maintaining minimal prebuffering to reduce startup delay. Choose optimized streaming protocols like DASH or HLS, combined with H.265/HEVC codec for efficient data compression. Monitor and analyze key metrics including startup time, rebuffer ratio, and frame drops to identify and resolve performance bottlenecks. 💡 Ready to implement these optimization techniques in your streaming app?
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Understanding Video Streaming Optimization The optimization of video streaming for Android apps requires careful consideration of latency, buffering, and stream quality to address key challenges like network variability and device fragmentation.
You'll need to monitor vital performance metrics including startup time, rebuffer ratio, and video quality switches to guarantee your app delivers a seamless viewing experience.
Understanding these fundamentals helps you make informed decisions about implementing flexible bitrate streaming, efficient caching mechanisms, and bandwidth optimization techniques that directly impact user satisfaction and app retention rates.
Current Challenges In Live Video Streaming Live video streaming on Android devices faces several critical technical hurdles that developers must address. The most notable challenges include maintaining consistent video quality while dealing with varying network conditions and managing performance issues related to device capabilities.
Our experience developing Super Power FX , a high-quality video effects application, has taught us valuable lessons in handling these challenges. While working with 720p HD video resolution and complex visual effects processing, we've learned that you'll need to balance buffer sizes and bitrate modification to prevent playback stuttering and excessive data consumption.
Network latency and bandwidth fluctuations can severely impact streaming quality, especially when users switch between Wi-Fi and cellular connections. Your app must handle these changes smoothly while preserving stream continuity. This became particularly evident when implementing Super Power FX's sharing features for platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and YouTube, where maintaining video quality across different network conditions is crucial.
Furthermore, you'll encounter device-specific constraints like CPU limitations, memory management, and battery drain that can affect streaming performance. These challenges become more complex when supporting multiple Android versions and diverse hardware specifications across different manufacturers' devices. For instance, when implementing Hollywood-quality visual effects and synchronized sound effects in Super Power FX, we had to optimize performance across various Android devices while ensuring smooth video processing and playback capabilities.
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Impact Of Latency On User Experience Because latency directly affects viewer retention rates, understanding its impact on user experience is essential for streaming app success. When your app's video delivery is delayed, users often experience frustration and may abandon your platform entirely. Research shows that viewers typically exit a stream after just 2 seconds of buffering (Guarnieri et al., 2017 ).
Your app performance greatly depends on how well you manage latency under varying network conditions. Poor latency management leads to video quality degradation, playback stuttering, and audio-video synchronization issues.
These technical problems translate directly into negative user experiences, affecting your app's reputation and user retention rates. To maintain competitive advantage, you'll need to implement flexible streaming solutions that can adjust video quality based on connection speed while keeping latency minimal across different devices and network environments.
Key Performance Metrics For Video Apps When measuring video streaming performance, several key metrics demand your attention to guarantee an ideal user experience. Your app's success relies on monitoring buffer rates, startup time, and video quality switches. Track network bandwidth usage to confirm smooth playback across different connection speeds.
For effective app performance optimization, you'll need to measure frame drop rates, which directly impact playback smoothness. Monitor video bitrate modification to see how well your app adjusts to changing network conditions.
Pay attention to CDN response times and cache hit rates to identify potential bottlenecks. Keep track of error rates, including playback failures and stream interruptions, to maintain service reliability.
Collect user engagement metrics like watch time and completion rates to understand how these technical factors affect viewer behavior.
Essential Technical Components To build an efficient video streaming Android app, you'll need to focus on three critical technical components.
Your choice between streaming protocols like HLS, DASH, or RTMP will impact your app's compatibility and performance across different devices and networks.
Implementing flexible bitrate streaming and integrating with content delivery networks (CDNs) along with edge computing solutions will help you deliver smooth playback while reducing buffering and latency for your users.
Choosing The Right Streaming Protocols Choosing the right streaming protocol greatly affects your app's performance and user experience. When implementing streaming features, you'll need to decide between popular protocols like HLS (HTTP Live Streaming), DASH (Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP), or RTMP (Real-Time Messaging Protocol). Each offers distinct advantages for different scenarios.
Consider your target device compatibility when selecting a protocol. HLS works well across most Android devices and provides reliable adjustable bitrate streaming, while DASH offers more flexibility in content delivery.
RTMP excels in low-latency scenarios but may require additional server configuration. For ideal performance, evaluate factors such as required latency, bandwidth efficiency, and codec support.
Your choice should align with your app's specific requirements, whether you're building a live streaming platform or video-on-demand service.
Implementing Adaptive Bitrate Streaming Building on your streaming protocol selection, adjustable bitrate streaming (ABR) requires several key technical components to function effectively.
You'll need to implement a quality analyzer that monitors network conditions and device capabilities in real-time, alongside a strong manifest file containing multiple video quality variants.
To optimize the performance of video streaming, integrate a stream switcher component that seamlessly shifts between different quality levels without interrupting playback.
Your app should include buffer management logic that maintains an appropriate balance between smooth playback and minimal latency.
Furthermore, implement error handling mechanisms to manage network fluctuations and device constraints.
Consider using Android's ExoPlayer or MediaPlayer libraries, which offer built-in support for adaptive bitrate streaming and can greatly reduce development time while ensuring reliable performance across different devices and network conditions.
Edge Computing And CDN Integration While adjustable bitrate streaming enhances video delivery, integrating your app with Content Delivery Networks (CDNs) and edge computing services considerably reduces latency and improves user experience.
You'll want to implement edge computing by processing data closer to users' devices, reducing the distance network requests need to travel. Partner with CDN providers that offer edge servers in your target markets, ensuring content is cached at locations nearest to your users.
Configure your app to automatically select the best edge server based on user location and network conditions. To maximize performance, implement request routing algorithms that direct traffic to the least congested edge nodes.
Consider using CDN providers that offer specialized video delivery features like dynamic packaging and real-time analytics. This approach helps maintain smooth playback while minimizing buffering delays and server load.
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Core Optimization Techniques Mobile streaming applications leverage core optimization techniques to deliver seamless video playback and high-quality content while managing device resources and network conditions effectively. To maximize your Android app's video streaming performance, you'll need to implement several core optimization techniques that work together.
You can start by utilizing advanced compression methods and smart buffer management to reduce data usage while maintaining quality, which directly impacts user experience.
Network performance enhancements and real-time quality adjustments will help your app adjust to varying connection speeds, ensuring smooth playback across different devices and network conditions.
Advanced Compression Methods Modern video streaming apps demand advanced compression techniques to deliver high-quality content while minimizing data usage. When developing your video streaming app, you'll need to implement efficient compression methods that balance quality and performance.
Today's compression algorithms can greatly reduce file sizes while maintaining visual fidelity.
To optimize your app's streaming performance, consider these essential compression approaches:
Use adaptive bitrate streaming (ABR) to dynamically adjust video quality based on network conditions. Implement H.265/HEVC codec for up to 50% better compression than H.264 (Schierl et al., 2012 ). Employ hardware-accelerated encoding/decoding when available on target devices. Apply frame-by-frame analysis to optimize keyframe placement and reduce redundant data. These advanced compression methods will help your app deliver smoother playback while consuming less bandwidth, resulting in a better user experience and reduced server costs.
Buffer Management Strategies Effective buffer management serves as the foundation of smooth video streaming in Android applications.
You'll need to implement flexible buffering strategies that modify based on network conditions and device capabilities to prevent common app performance issues like stuttering or freezing.
Configure your buffer size dynamically by monitoring network speed and available memory. Start with a moderate initial buffer size of 2-3 seconds, then modify it based on playback metrics (Xu et al., 2016 ).
You can implement a double-buffer system where one buffer loads upcoming content while the other handles current playback. This approach helps maintain continuous streaming even during network fluctuations.
For instance, in our video dating app Pronto , we implemented these buffer management strategies to ensure smooth video chat experiences between users. When handling random video chat connections, the double-buffer system proved crucial in maintaining high-quality video streams, especially important for first impressions in dating scenarios. Our experience showed that maintaining consistent video quality was essential for user engagement and satisfaction in dating services.
Track buffer health metrics like fill rate and depletion speed to optimize your buffer management strategies.
When you detect potential underruns, temporarily increase buffer size or reduce video quality to maintain playback continuity. This was particularly important for Pronto's global user base, where network conditions vary significantly across different locations.
Network Performance Enhancement Building on strong buffer management, network performance optimization directly impacts streaming quality.
You'll need to implement flexible bitrate streaming and monitor network conditions in real-time to guarantee smooth playback. For live-streaming applications, reducing latency while maintaining quality is vital.
During our development of Worldcast Live, we faced this challenge head-on when creating a solution for HD concert broadcasting. We achieved sub-second latency (0.4-0.5 seconds) using a custom WebRTC and Kurento implementation, proving that ultra-low latency streaming is possible even with thousands of concurrent viewers.
Key network performance enhancement techniques to implement:
Use HTTP Live Streaming (HLS) or DASH protocols to modify video quality based on network conditions Implement efficient data compression algorithms to reduce bandwidth usage Enable content delivery network (CDN) integration for faster content distribution Configure automatic quality switching based on connection speed fluctuations Consider WebRTC for ultra-low latency requirements, as demonstrated in our concert streaming solution Monitor network metrics like throughput, packet loss, and jitter to fine-tune these optimizations. Consider implementing fallback mechanisms for weak connections, making sure your app maintains functionality even under challenging network conditions. For instance, in Worldcast Live, we implemented automatic quality adjustment for viewers with poor internet connections while maintaining HD audio quality whenever possible.
Real-Time Quality Adjustment Real-time quality adjustment serves as the cornerstone of responsive video streaming, allowing your app to dynamically modify playback parameters based on device and network conditions.
You'll need to implement flexible bitrate streaming (ABR) algorithms that monitor available bandwidth and device capabilities in real-time.
To optimize performance, test your app's quality adjustment mechanisms on real devices across different network scenarios. This helps you fine-tune your ABR thresholds and guarantee smooth shifts between quality levels.
Consider implementing these key features:
Automatic resolution switching based on network speed Buffer-aware quality selection to prevent stuttering Frame rate adjustment for CPU-constrained devices Bandwidth estimation using sliding window algorithms These optimizations will maintain user engagement by delivering the best possible video quality while preventing buffering interruptions.
Implementation Guide You'll want to start by properly integrating ExoPlayer into your Android streaming app, following Google's recommended implementation patterns and lifecycle management practices.
Setting up strong error handling and network state monitoring will help you maintain a smooth streaming experience even when connectivity fluctuates.
To guarantee your app performs at its best, you should implement thorough performance tracking that monitors key metrics like buffering rates, playback quality, and user engagement patterns.
ExoPlayer Integration Steps To integrate ExoPlayer into your Android streaming app, several key implementation steps must be followed. When working with an app development company, make certain they understand these vital requirements for ideal video streaming performance.
ExoPlayer's architecture requires proper setup of media sources, player instances, and surface views for seamless playback.
To effectively implement ExoPlayer and ensure smooth media playback, follow these essential steps:
Add ExoPlayer dependencies to your app's build.gradle file and sync the project. Create a SimpleExoPlayer instance in your activity or fragment. Configure a PlayerView in your layout XML file and bind it to the player instance. Initialize media sources using the appropriate MediaSource factory for your content type. Remember to implement proper lifecycle management by releasing player resources when they're no longer needed. This prevents memory leaks and guarantees your app maintains ideal performance during video playback sessions.
Handling Network Changes Since mobile users frequently switch between different network conditions, implementing strong network change handling is essential for maintaining video streaming quality.
You'll need to monitor ConnectivityManager events and modify your streaming parameters accordingly. To handle network changes effectively in your Android app, implement a NetworkCallback that detects shifts between Wi-Fi, cellular data, and offline states.
When network quality drops, automatically reduce video quality to prevent buffering. For live-streaming content, maintain a smaller buffer size to minimize latency while ensuring smooth playback.
Create a connection quality analyzer that tracks metrics like bandwidth, packet loss, and jitter. Set up intelligent fallback mechanisms that can quickly switch to lower bitrates or alternate CDN endpoints when network degradation occurs.
This flexible approach helps maintain an uninterrupted viewing experience across varying connection speeds.
Error Management Systems Building on strong network handling, error management systems form the foundation of reliable video streaming applications.
You'll need to implement extensive error detection and recovery mechanisms to guarantee your users maintain a smooth streaming experience even when issues arise.
For effective error management systems in video streaming, focus on these key components:
Real-time error logging with detailed diagnostics for quick troubleshooting Automatic retry mechanisms with exponential backoff for failed connections Graceful degradation protocols that adjust video quality before complete failure User-friendly error messages that provide clear explanations and resolution steps Implement these components using Android's built-in error handling capabilities and custom exception handlers.
Your error management system should constantly monitor playback status, network conditions, and device performance, triggering appropriate responses when issues are detected.
Performance Monitoring Setup Effective performance monitoring serves as the cornerstone of any successful video streaming app. You'll need to implement thorough analytics tools to track key metrics that impact your active users' experience.
Start by integrating Firebase Performance Monitoring or Android Vitals to measure crucial data points like startup time, frame rate, and buffering events.
Configure your performance monitoring setup to track custom metrics specific to video streaming, such as video quality switches, playback failures, and bandwidth usage patterns.
Set up dashboards that display real-time data and historical trends, allowing you to identify performance bottlenecks quickly. Establish baseline performance thresholds and configure automated alerts for when metrics fall below acceptable levels.
This proactive approach helps you maintain ideal streaming quality and respond to issues before they greatly impact your users.
Advanced Features And Future-Proofing Software engineers continuously monitor and optimize streaming performance metrics to ensure seamless delivery of interactive features and adaptive bitrate capabilities across evolving network technologies. To future-proof your Android streaming app, you'll want to incorporate interactive features like real-time comments, polls, and synchronized viewing experiences. Your app should utilize 5G capabilities through flexible bitrate streaming and reduced latency buffering, ensuring peak performance across different network conditions.
Consider implementing modular architecture and cloud-based processing to accommodate emerging technologies like AR overlays and AI-powered content recommendations.
Interactive Streaming Capabilities Modern streaming apps must evolve beyond basic playback to remain competitive in today's market. By incorporating interactive features, you'll enhance user behavior patterns and create more engaging experiences.
Your cloud infrastructure should support real-time interactions while maintaining low latency.
To implement effective interactive streaming capabilities, consider these essential features:
Live chat integration with message queuing and caching Real-time polls and viewer voting systems Interactive overlays for product links and information Multi-viewer synchronized playback rooms These features require careful implementation to maintain smooth performance. You'll need to optimize your WebSocket connections, implement efficient data synchronization, and guarantee your backend can handle concurrent interactive sessions. Consider using WebRTC for peer-to-peer interactions when appropriate, and implement fallback mechanisms for users with slower connections.
5G Optimization Techniques While streaming technology continues to evolve, implementing advanced optimization techniques now will future-proof your Android app against upcoming challenges.
Start by implementing dynamic bitrate modification to automatically adjust video quality based on network conditions. You'll also want to optimize your app size by using efficient compression algorithms for video files and removing unused resources. Consider implementing progressive downloading, which lets users start watching content before it's fully downloaded.
Add support for emerging codecs like AV1, which offers better compression without sacrificing quality. Enable background preloading of upcoming content segments to reduce buffering, and implement smart caching strategies to store frequently accessed videos locally.
These features will help your app maintain high performance as streaming technology advances and user expectations grow.
Scalability Considerations Since user demands and data volumes continue to grow exponentially, your streaming app needs a sturdy scalability strategy from day one. When planning your architecture, consider how video streaming giants like Netflix handle millions of concurrent users while maintaining performance.
Essential scalability considerations for your streaming app:
Implement load balancing across multiple servers to distribute user traffic efficiently. Design a content delivery network (CDN) integration strategy to cache videos closer to users. Adopt microservices architecture to scale individual components independently. Use cloud-based auto-scaling to adjust resources based on real-time demand. Ensure your database structure can handle growing user profiles, viewing histories, and analytics data. Consider implementing horizontal scaling capabilities early, allowing your system to expand by adding more servers rather than upgrading existing ones.
Emerging Technologies Integration To future-proof your streaming app, you'll need to integrate emerging technologies that enhance user experience and maintain competitive advantage.
Consider implementing AI-powered content recommendations, similar to what every online video streaming giant now offers. Integrate WebRTC for reduced latency and 5G optimization capabilities to guarantee smooth playback across different network conditions.
Add support for emerging video codecs like AV1, which offers better compression while maintaining quality. Implement machine learning algorithms to automatically adjust streaming quality based on device capabilities and network conditions. Include features like offline viewing with smart storage management and blockchain-based content verification for enhanced security.
These technologies won't just improve your app's current performance—they'll position your platform to modify as streaming technology continues to evolve.
Success Metrics And Best Practices Performance monitoring dashboards and KPI tracking tools provide essential insights into streaming app metrics, helping developers optimize user experience and maintain high-quality video delivery across Android devices. To measure your Android streaming app's success, you'll need strong performance monitoring tools and user experience analytics that track metrics like buffering times, video quality switches, and user engagement patterns.
Your implementation checklist should include essential features such as flexible bitrate streaming, background playback support, and offline download capabilities to guarantee thorough functionality.
Following established optimization guidelines for video caching, network handling, and memory management will help you maintain consistent streaming performance across different Android devices and network conditions.
Performance Monitoring Tools Monitoring your app's streaming performance requires strong analytics and diagnostic tools to identify bottlenecks and improve user experience.
You'll need comprehensive performance monitoring tools that can track metrics across different video sources and network conditions. Android Studio's built-in profilers and third-party solutions can help you gather essential data.
Android Profiler for real-time CPU, memory, and network usage analysis Firebase Performance Monitoring to track video startup time and buffering events Custom analytics tools like Google Analytics to measure user engagement Crashlytics for identifying video playback crashes and ANR issues These tools provide significant understanding into your app's streaming performance through detailed reports and visualization dashboards.
User Experience Analytics Understanding how users interact with your streaming app requires tracking key performance indicators (KPIs) that reflect real-world usage patterns and satisfaction levels.
You'll want to monitor metrics like buffer rates, playback failures, and time-to-first-frame to guarantee a seamless user experience. Implement analytics tools that capture both quantitative data and user feedback through in-app surveys and ratings. Track session duration, video completion rates, and user retention to identify potential bottlenecks. Pay special attention to drop-off points where users abandon streams, as these indicate areas needing improvement. Consider implementing A/B testing to evaluate different streaming configurations and UI layouts. Analyze device-specific performance metrics to optimize playback across various Android versions and hardware capabilities.
Regular analysis of these metrics will help you make data-driven decisions for continuous app improvement.
Implementation Checklist A thorough implementation checklist serves as your roadmap for successful video streaming optimization. Before deploying your video streaming features, verify you've addressed critical components that affect mobile users' experience and performance metrics.
Here's a step-by-step guide to streamline your implementation process:
Pre-load video assets strategically by implementing flexible buffering based on network conditions. Optimize video compression settings while maintaining acceptable quality thresholds. Implement error handling and retry mechanisms for interrupted streams. Monitor and log key performance indicators (KPIs) including startup time and buffer ratio. Test your implementation across different network conditions and device types to validate performance.
Consider implementing A/B testing to measure the impact of various optimization strategies.
Don't forget to document your configuration settings and optimization parameters for future reference and troubleshooting.
Optimization Guidelines Success metrics and enhancement benchmarks provide the foundation for measuring your streaming app's performance. Track key performance indicators like buffer rates, startup time, and playback smoothness to guarantee ideal user experience.
Monitor visual quality metrics including resolution adjustment and frame rate consistency across different mobile device types.
You'll want to establish baseline performance thresholds for your streaming app, such as maximum acceptable initial buffering time (under 3 seconds) and mid-stream rebuffering frequency (less than 0.5%).
Set target bitrates that balance quality with network conditions, typically ranging from 1.5 Mbps for standard definition to 6 Mbps for HD content (Ran et al., 2020 ).
Implement automated quality monitoring tools to detect and log streaming issues, allowing you to identify patterns and enhance problematic areas before they impact user satisfaction.
Our Video Streaming Development Legacy: 19 Years of Innovation Since our founding in 2005, we've dedicated ourselves exclusively to video streaming and real-time software development, accumulating deep expertise in Android video optimization. Our journey has paralleled the evolution of streaming technology itself - from the launch of YouTube to the emergence of WebRTC and modern low-latency HLS. This focused specialization has led to a perfect 100% success rate across 625 streaming projects on Upwork, with over 400 verified client reviews validating our technical excellence.
We've successfully tackled some of the industry's most challenging streaming implementations, including BrainCert (the world's first HTML5 + WebRTC learning management system) which now generates $10M in annual revenue (MAEd, 2023 ). Our experience spans diverse streaming applications, from developing high-performance video chat platforms handling thousands of concurrent users to creating sophisticated e-learning solutions that maintain pristine audio-visual quality. Each project has enhanced our understanding of Android streaming optimization, particularly in areas like adaptive bitrate streaming and buffer management.
What sets us apart is our rigorous approach to quality assurance and developer expertise. Every developer joining our team, regardless of seniority, must complete a 2-week intensive training specifically focused on video/audio software development and AI integration. This ensures that when we implement streaming optimizations, we're drawing from both theoretical knowledge and practical experience across hundreds of successful implementations. Our insights in this article come directly from our hands-on experience optimizing streaming applications for clients across 15+ countries, dealing with various network conditions and device specifications.
Frequently Asked Questions How Does Android 12's Video Encoding Differ From Previous Versions? You'll find Android 12 uses enhanced codec prioritization and improved hardware acceleration. It's introduced better buffer management and HEVC encoding support, with dynamic quality adjustments to optimize your video streaming performance.
Can Low-Latency Streaming Work Effectively With Encrypted Video Content? You can achieve low-latency streaming with encrypted content using hardware-accelerated AES encryption, HTTPS protocols, and DRM solutions like Widevine. Just make sure you're optimizing your encryption/decryption pipeline to minimize processing overhead.
What's the Maximum Concurrent User Limit for Optimal Streaming Performance? You'll need to benchmark your specific setup, but generally aim for 500-1000 concurrent users per server. You can scale horizontally by adding more servers if you're expecting higher user loads.
Which Video Codecs Provide the Best Balance Between Quality and Latency? You'll find H.264/AVC codec offers the best balance, with VP9 as a solid alternative. For real-time streaming, stick to H.264 baseline profile, while H.265/HEVC works better for higher quality needs.
How Does Battery Optimization Mode Affect Video Streaming Performance? Battery optimization mode can throttle your app's background processes and network requests. You'll want to request battery optimization exemptions and use foreground services to maintain consistent streaming performance for your users.
To Sum Up By implementing these optimization strategies for low-latency video streaming in your Android app, you'll be well-positioned to deliver exceptional user experiences. Remember to regularly monitor your key performance metrics, stay current with emerging technologies, and continuously test your optimizations across different network conditions. Focus on maintaining the balance between video quality and latency while adjusting your approach based on real-world user feedback and technical requirements.
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MAEd, J. (2023). Use of Learning Management System and the Instructional Proficiencies Among Teachers in the Private Schools. International Journal of Research Publications, 133(1) , pp. 162-166. https://doi.org/10.47119/ijrp1001331920235511
Ran, D., Hong, H., Chen, Y., et al. (2020). Preference-Aware Dynamic Bitrate Adaptation for Mobile Short-Form Video Feed Streaming. IEEE Access, vol. 8 , pp. 220083-220094. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.3042619
Schierl, T., Hannuksela, M., Wang, Y., & Wenger, S. (2012). System Layer Integration of High Efficiency Video Coding. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology , vol. 22, no. 12, pp. 1871-1884. https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsvt.2012.2223054
Xu, Y., Elayoubi, S., Altman, E., et al. (2016). Flow-Level QoE of Video Streaming in Wireless Networks. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing , vol. 15, no. 11 , pp. 2762-2780. https://doi.org/10.1109/tmc.2015.2510629
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